Opportunities and Obstacles for Transit Oriented Development in Tel-Aviv

Section 1 - IntroductionIn order to incorporate TOD principles into the
Until recently, suburbanization, urban sprawl andbuilt environments surrounding Tel-Aviv’s new
the consequential automobile dependence wereLRT, there is a need to recognize and address its
issues of concern mainly in the United States,opportunities and obstacles. These opportunities
Canada and Australia. These days these issuesand obstacles will highlight the missing features and
have spread elsewhere, including Asia, the Middlethe existing advantages for creating a better,
East, and even Europe. Although the problemsmore sustainable city.  The opportunities and
associated with these changes vary from place toobstacles include policies, perceptions, planning
place, they mainly include environmental impactsguidelines, and the approaches of government
such as greenhouse gas emissions and pollution;officials, educators, policy and decision makers and
economic constraints such as increases in costs ofurban and transportation planners. These
infrastructures and external costs of pollution; andopportunities and obstacles were identified through
social injustices such as racial and socio-economicalkey informant interviews with scholars and
segregation and social inequity.professionals, and from analysis of official
In 2003 there was one car for every 11.5 peoplegovernment reports, planning guidelines, and media
worldwide. However, this is a world average and itoutputs. One should note that even though there
is not proportionally divided among countries. Whileare many official and unofficial documents that
in North America, Australia and Europe thereendorse TOD (and some that are skeptical about
were three people per car on average, in Asiait), only few have an influence on official master
there were 250-300 people per car on average.plans and policies, and this issue will also receive
The relatively low number of cars per persons inattention in this section.
the developing world is not at all comforting,4.2 - Opportunities and obstacles of TOD
knowing the huge potential for growth. Particularly4.2.1 - Density and Diversity
when most of the transportation funding in theCentral Tel-Aviv’s residential population
developing world is directed toward roaddensity is generally considered to be high, and
infrastructure (60 percent), while only a smallincreasing over recent years. A high density of
portion (17 percent) is directed toward publiccommercial and residential activity is a basic
transit (Whitelegg and  Haq 2003). Easterncomponent of TOD due to the strong correlation
European countries, such as Hungary andbetween density and transit use. When creating
Romania, have similar investment trends and arehighly dense areas, diversification of land uses is
also experiencing an increase in roadvery important in order to provide basic
infrastructures. (Whitelegg and  Haq 2003).necessities and employment opportunity for the
Middle Eastern countries are not immune to globalresidents. Dittmar and Ohland (2004) argue that
transportation trends either.  In a region with nodensity in TOD is needed in order to allow
shortage of oil supply, the automobile serves as“sufficient customers within walking or
the main means of transportation among thosebicycling distance from the transit stops to allow
who can afford it. Similarly to other regions, mostthe [transit] system to run efficiently” (p. 24).
transportation infrastructure investments areFigure 4.3 presents the urban density in selected
bound for roads, even though in many areas ofcities around the world. With an average of 72
the Middle East transportation infrastructure is notpersons per hectare, density in Tel-Aviv is higher
well maintained. In most Middle Eastern cities,than in many cities in the developed world.
public transit infrastructure investments are veryAccording to Avigail Ferdman (personal
low priority. (Whitelegg and  Haq 2003).communication, February 12, 2007), , and
Presently, Egypt is the only country in the regionProfessor Yoram Shiftan (personal communication,
with a subway system. Even Israel, which has theFebruary 3, 2007), density and land use diversity
strongest economy in the Middle East and is highlyin areas surrounding the proposed Red-line are
westernized relative to the rest of the region, hasalready high.  The fact that there is relatively high
been experiencing difficulties in expanding itsdensity in Tel-Aviv can act as leverage for the
transit system. Only in 2006, more than 40 yearsRed line and organically create TOD. It means that
after they were proposed, did construction onthere is an existing minimum level of activity
light rail systems begin in Tel-Aviv and Jerusalemwhich can be strengthened. Yet, both Shiftan and
(Whitelegg and Haq 2003). Meanwhile, the city ofFerdman believe that at the moment, further
Tel-Aviv which concentrates most of Israel’sdevelopments around proposed light rail are not
economic activity is experiencing most of thethe first concern of transit authorities.
urban problems that result from car dependency.While there is little doubt about the advantages of
Air pollution, congestion, and land depletion indensity, the way it is managed and related to by
Tel-Aviv are the results of relatively high carofficials is quite important in determining its
ownership (around 400 cars per 1000 people),influence in the urban context.  According to
which is almost twice the national average. Due toProfessor Joseph Berechman (personal
the fact that more than 95 percent of publiccommunication, January 19, 2007), there is a need
transit trips are made by diesel buses,for a joint effort from several agencies and
Tel-Aviv’s transit system contributes its ownmunicipalities.   In an interview he stated that
share to the urban problems (Shiftan et al., 2003).‘the area is quite well developed already and it
Shiftan et al. (2003) identify the majorwill require major efforts by various agencies and
transportation problems in the Tel-Avivmunicipalities, as well as funding, to achieve
metropolitan area. The first is the high andTOD’.
growing congestion, which is due to the increase inA report published by NTA (Cohen et al. 2005),
car ownership. According to Sofer (2004) thewhich is the organization responsible for the light
number of vehicles in Israel increases by 100rail, discusses the relation between density and
percent every decade, while the roadtransit use. Among other issues, this report states
infrastructure is increases by only 10 percent. the importance of measuring density at the micro
The second problem is the lack of synchronizationscale. The existing measurements of density in
between the transit system and the spatialTel-Aviv mentioned in the literature, do not
patterns of land developments. New residentialinclude, or do not focus on other local municipalities
and commercial developments are built in areasincluded in the light rail path. This report also
with no or very little access to public transit, anhighlights the fact that the effect of density on
issue that promotes decentralization and highertravel behavior might vary according to levels of
car dependency.  The third problem is a lack ofaccessibility, which according to Hanson (2004 p.
coordination between the authorities and parties4) refers to “the number of opportunities,
involved in the transportation system, an issuealso called ‘activity sites’ available within
that causes difficulties in maintenance of thethe certain distance or travel time”. This
transportation system and in the implementationdensity should be interrelated with diversity. On
of new projects.  ADDIN EN.CITEthe other hand, according to this report the
Shahar200527275Shahar, AriaBrin, EldadNachmias,correlation between density and travel behavior is
DavidMenahem, GilaMetropolitan Tel-Aviv: Definingnot strong enough to create density related
its Boarders and the Systems for Cooperationpolicies. The same report discussed the influence
Among the Metropolitan Municipalities Socialof diversified activities in travel behavior. While it
Processes and Public Policy inrecognizes the advantages of mixed land used
Tel-Aviv-Yafothree2005Tel-AvivDepartment ofand diversified activities on transit use, it states
Public Policy, Faculty of Social Sceince, Tel-Avivthat they mostly influence non-motorized
UniversityHebrewShahar & Brin (2005) arguetransportation use. This report concludes that
that this problem includes the municipalities in thediversity should receive high consideration, and
metropolitan area, which have difficulties tothat accessibility and density together have high
coordinate on the issue of the new light railinfluence on transit use (Cohen et al. 2005). While
system in particular.published by NTA, its influence on planning and
Finally, the transit system provides a low level ofpolicy making is yet to be seen.
service. There is no reserved right-of-way for4.2.2- Policies
buses, bus schedules are unreliable, and there isIn 2003 Israel’s Ministry of Transportation
no coordination between the different servicepublished an official report that presented
providers. There are more than six busguidelines for planning the LRT. This report
companies that provide service in Tel-Aviv, all ofdictates policies for mass transit systems planning,
which are private or undergoing privatization.and their incorporation in the urban structure. The
Some service providers have overlapping routes,report highlights the potential of the light rail in
while some areas are not well covered. Theurban planning, and its positive influence on urban
system of commuter rail on the other hand, isrevitalization. The fact that such a report presents
owned by the government. It is mostly used aspolicies for light rail planning that indirectly promote
interurban rail with few stations in each city. Is hastransit oriented planning can act as leverage for
approximately 19 stations in the Metropolitan area,creating TOD. The problem however, is that most
and four stations in the city of Tel-Aviv. In 2005of the attention is directed toward the physical
25 million passengers used the rail, from whichstructure of the LRT itself, and its amalgamation
more than 50 percent used it forin the transportation system. From this report it
inter-metropolitan traveling ( If one needs to useseems as if the Ministry of Transportation
more than one service to reach his destination, itacknowledges the positive influence of the transit
becomes cumbersome and expensive. Thosesystem on the urban structure, but does not
issues negatively affect the reputation andtake initiative to assist in planning (Ratovitch,
reliability of the transit system, decrease publicLinder & Harari 2003).
satisfaction with the system, increase car use,In 1999 the Israeli master plan for land
and as a direct result, contribute to negativetransportation was published by the Israeli
social, economical and environmental problemsInstitute for Transportation Planning. This
(Shiftan et al., 2003).document presents a vision for the year 2020, as
Many of the problems in Tel-Aviv are similar towell as existing and future transportation policies
those found in North America, and increasingly, inthat promote this vision.  As part of the 2020
cities in the industrializing world and Westernvision, this document highlights the importance of
Europe as well. Transit Oriented Developmenta well oriented mass transit system. According to
(TOD) is a planning approach that has beenthis master plan, while a large portion of
proposed to address those problems. TOD is antransportation investment will still be directed
approach that was developed in the U.S.toward private transportation infrastructure, the
However, as mentioned in the first section of thisinvestment in transit will increase substantially.
review, car dependency and its related problemsNonetheless, this plan focuses mostly on the
are similar globally. Therefore, there is no reasoninfluence of the transportation plan on roads and
why such an approach should not work in otherhighway infrastructure, and gives little attention to
regions of the world with similar problems.the influence on urban way of life. Table 4.1
These days, a light rail system is beingpresents the ministry of transportation's budget
constructed in Tel-Aviv Metropolitan Areafor transportation projects in Israel (2005 Data).
(TAMA). Whether or not this new system willThese data represent a five year (2005-2010)
reduce problems in TAMA is a question of time.expenditure forecast 80 percent greater than
However, the policies and planning approachesthat of the previous five years. While from 2000
that will complement this system have theto 2005 most of the budget was spent on the
potential to dramatically improve the quality of lifeAirport renewal, this time there is a stronger
in TAMA. This thesis examines the ways in whichemphasis on transit and roads upgrade (Kadmi,
a TOD planning approach could contribute to the2004).
success of the new LRT system underProject
construction in Tel-Aviv. It presents the potentialBudget
for and obstacles to such an approach. Opinions ofLight rail in Tel-Aviv, Jerusalem and Haifa
experts in the field of transportation, urban12.5 Billion N.I.S
planning and public policy are presented, in additionSuburban rail line from Tel-Aviv to Jerusalem
to an analysis of the existing planning and4 Billion N.I.S
transportation reports published by theUpgrade of suburban rail to Electricity
organizations involved in the light rail development.1.6 Billion N.I.S
The analysis is intended to contribute toward aImprovements and upgrades of Road
better understanding of planning procedures ininfrastructures
Israel and to suggest conduct by which it would17.7 Billion N.I.S
be possible to overcome the hurdles that preventOther Projects (air and sea transport)
the state of Israel and the TAMA to create5.7 Billion N.I.S
sustainable transportation and urban lifestyle.A more recent plan, published in November 2005,
Chapter Two of this thesis provides a literaturecalled ‘Master Plan 35’, sheds a more
review, thus a better understanding of TOD, andpositive light on the potential for TOD in TAMA. 
transportation infrastructure. Chapter ThreeThis plan is one of many official national master
presents the methodology used for the analysis,plans released every few years. It is approved by
and the way this research was designed. Chapterthe Ministry of Internal Affairs, and has the
Four describes the context of the research andgreatest influence on policies and planning
the findings. Finally, Chapter five puts the resultsguidelines directly related to urban development
into context and present a conclusion.and urban way of life. The objectives of this plan
Section 2 - Literature revieware to improve urban centers while reducing
2.1 – Transit Oriented Developmentsuburbanization, growth management by
TOD is an approach that seeks to diversifyconcentrating developments around metropolitan
opportunities for city and suburban dwellers, andareas, land preservation for future generations,
present them with an alternative lifestyle. What ispromotion of mass transit, promotion of
interesting is that even though TOD wasinter-jurisdictional cooperation, reduction in pollution
presented in the 1990’s as a new concept,and congestion and other urban problems.   
much of cities’ growth in the early 20thSection 12.1.1 in TAMA 35 obliges planners or
century was dependent on public transportation,developers to present a transit analysis in their
particularly on streetcars. Prior to the privateplans. Section 12.1.2 compels developers to create
motor vehicle, built environments were accessiblea minimum amount of public open space and public
by the available mode of transit at that time. institutions in the area. The plan also sets density
Attributable to the fact that streetcars and trainsrestrictions (minimum and maximum) and
were the available means of transportation, citiespromotes land use diversification. Generally,
spread according to those means, and thus wereMaster Plan 35 restricts developments in outer
more compact and accessible. Hence, bymetropolitan areas, and concentrates
presenting TOD, one is trying to re-establish urbandevelopments within the inner areas, while
forms that were common historically.promoting transit use for new developments.
Unfortunately today this urban form is no longerThus, this plan presents a potential for TOD.
organic, and people tend to choose other formsThe Ministry of Environmental Protection initiated
that supposedly promote a high quality lifestyleits own report in 1998 on transportation policies
(Dittmar and Ohland, 2004).for environmental preservation.  This report
Dittmar and Ohland (2004) define Transit Orientedhighlights the contradictions between the
Development as one which has “a mix ofenvironmental and transportation goals, and
uses, at various densities, within a half mile radiuspresents a policy strategy that will reduce
around each transit stop” (p. 21). Morenegative transportation effects on the
specifically, according to Dittmar and Ohlandenvironment. The report accentuates the fact
(2004) in order for a development to be referredthat private vehicle use causes most of the
to as TOD it should follow several criteria. Firstly,negative environmental effects (among all
they present the importance of location efficiency.transportation modes in Israel); hence there is a
This notion refers to the importance of theneed for car restraining policies to improve the
proximity to transit.  While the costs of owning aattractiveness of transit. The publication of such a
car are quite large, proximity to adequate transitreport strengthens concepts of sustainable
increases opportunities for those who cannottransportation as a means for reducing car
afford a car. In communities with inadequate ordependency and its negative externalities in Israel
no transit, car-less families are disadvantaged and( ADDIN EN.CITE Phaitelson1998363646Phaitelson,
restricted. According to Dittmar and OhlandE.Solomon, I.Cohen, G.Binstock, M.Nevot, D.The
(2004), the three factors influencing locationMinistry for Environmental
efficiency include density (in order for transitProtectionTransportation Policy for Environmental
systems to be economically efficient, there is aPreservation1271998Publishing Division - State of
need for a large number of users), transitIsraelThe Ministry for Environmental
accessibility (transit stops should be adequatelyProtectionPhaitelson et al. 1998). The need for car
located within the community, and transit servicesrestraining policies, which many politicians fear
should be sufficient and with various destinations),mentioning, are beginning to sink into people’s
and pedestrian friendliness (human scale,awareness. Such policies are needed to increase
interconnected pedestrian networks).the effect of transit systems and TOD. These
A rich mix of choices is a second criterion fordays the Ministry of Transportation increases its
evaluating TOD. A well structured environmentinvolvement in regional and local planning, and has
offers its inhabitants a variety of choices. Bya clear agenda on sustainable development. The
intensifying the choices of activities in aMinistry even published recently a guideline for
community, one increases the community’ssustainable development in local authorities. The
accessibility which is defined by transportformality of this document is not very clear, and
geographers as the amount of availablethe test of time will show how this recognition of
opportunities in a certain distance or traveling timesustainability will be translated into influencing
(Hanson, 2004). This feature is also connected topolicies.
walkability, because it is important that thoseProfessor Shiftan from the Israeli Institute of
activities will be accessible for people with lowTechnology (personal communication, February 3,
mobility.  In such an environment there should2007), says that one can see a move toward
also be variety of housing types and prices. Bymore sustainable policies in Israel (as can be seen
increasing the range of housing choices, there isin Master Plan 35, and the Ministry of
not only a diversification in terms ofEnvironmental protection reports). According to
socio-economic status in the community, but alsoProf. Shiftan, the Ministry of Transportation
a diversification of housing styles for those whorecently proposed car restricting policies as well.
may desire an alternative to single family homes.Perhaps one of the most important potentials for
Value capturing is a third measure for the successTOD is the recognition by more and more people
of TOD.  In addition to the transit authority thatof the need for sustainable developments, and
profits from increased rider-ship and jointthis recognition is gradually influencing policies. The
development, there are also the landowners andnotion of TOD however, is not as familiar to
developers that benefit from the land value, andplanners in Israel. For TOD specific policies to be
enjoy greater approval. There is the governmentcreated there is a need for greater education on
which collects more taxes from more tax payingthe topic.
properties, including commercial businesses within4.2.3 - Real-estate demand
the same area. And there is the public whoFor TOD to be realized, developers, potential
benefits from affordable houses, lowerresidents, and business people, need to show
transportation costs, and better quality of life ininterest in areas surrounding the light rail.
terms of local opportunities. When looking at theHowever, in order to create efficient TOD,
long term advantages, governments also benefitinvestments should be well managed. As
from less negative externalities of car use,presented by Dittmar and Ohland (2004),
meaning less external costs.“[Developers] do not have the mandate to
The notion of place making with high quality ofpromote public good. Their mandate is to meet
urban design is important when creating TOD.financial requirements of investors and
Dittmar and Ohland (2004), argue that the qualitylenders…” Consequently, local authorities
of urban design is measured according to severalshould be selective, and allocate land uses to
features. Firstly, a well designed place is one thatinvestors.
is at a human scale and is human oriented. TheIndeed developers and investors in Israel have
environment should be safe, attractive,already shown interest in lands surrounding the
comfortable, vibrant and fun. Second, the newproposed light rail. Indeed, the company investing
environment should complement and enrich thein the construction of the light rail, ‘MTS’,
existing one. Additionally, the environment shouldis partially owned by the largest real estate
have a variety of transportation choices whichdeveloping company in Israel (Africa-Israel). One
are accessible and interconnected. In terms ofcan assume that this connection is not
landscape there should be a balance betweencoincidental, and that this company predicts an
man-made and natural environment. Moreover, aincrease in land values, hence securing “right
TOD project should provide a variety of activitiesof way” for its investments.  Other
that meet the demands of a variety of users, incommercial developers showed interest as well.
addition to answering market demands and beingNonetheless, one should note that the most
economically viable investments. Lastly, projectscommercial developers base their sales predictions
should take into consideration future needs andon high ridership, rather than on local sales from
changes.residents.
A final criterion for evaluating TOD is the ability ofIn regards to residential developments and
a proposed development to balance the role of aresidential demand, the case is somewhat
transit node by making it a destination in the localdifferent. These days there are between six to
and regional scale (by introducing differenteight legal suits in objection to the layout of the
activities in the area of the station), and takelight rail. Many people fear that not only will the rail
advantage of fact that it generates movementdecrease land value, but that it will harm the
and activity.urban fabric, and create noise pollution and crime.
Dittmar and Ohland (2004) add that theThis issue might intimidate some residential
aforementioned features of TOD should not bedevelopers that targeted areas surrounding the
regarded as “written in stone”, and therelight rail.  Case studies of TOD show the opposite
are different scales of TOD. Most of thoseresponse, by which land value increases and crime
aspects are interconnected, yet various urbandecreases. Furthermore, buses’ diesel engines
forms are not suitable for some of thesecreate more noise and pollution than the electric
features. The different transit agencies in the U.Slight rail. Hence, the claims made by most of the
(some of which are involved in TOD projects)complainers are invalid, and show that people are
present the goals they are hoping to achieve.misinformed.
Figure 1 presents the goals according to their4.2.4   - Connectivity:
importance in percentage.The advantages of the LRT over other systems
Bae (2002) takes a more critical approach, arguingin an urban environment were discussed in Section
that TOD is harder to implement in AmericanTwo of this thesis. However, in the majority of
cities which are extremely automobile dependentcases LRT can only cover selected parts of a
and sprawling. She adds that the success ofMetropolitan area, and the rest of the area would
developing around transit, found for example inbe better served by other public transit modes
many Asian cities, will be difficult in highlysuch as regular buses, express buses and bus
motorized countries. She gives the example ofrapid transit (BRT).  In order for TOD to be
Orenco station in Portland, which is to somemost efficient, areas surrounding light rail stations
extent a model TOD and was designed by Petermust have the highest relative density and the
Calthorpe who coined the term. She explains thatmost diverse land uses (with emphasis on
because the notion of TOD is rather new, it iscommercial activity), and as distance from the
quite difficult to evaluate its success. For thosestation increases, density decreases. BRT could be
who have the option, she argues, the private carused to connect distant areas to the LRT (figure
is still a preferred choice for mode of traveling4.4). Each bus station will serve specific area
(Bae 2002).  On the other hand, a report by the(smaller than the area the LRT station serves).
Transit Cooperative Research Program ( ADDINMost of the population needs to have a bus
EN.CITE Cervero20047727Cervero,stop  250 to 400 meters from their house
RobertMurpfy, StevenFerrell, Christopheret, ADDIN EN.CITE Ben-Shaul2003373727Ben-Shaul,
elAnonymous,Transit-Oriented Development in theP.Transport Today and TomorrowThe
United States: Experiences, Challenges, andNeighborhood We Would Like to Live In: Residents
Prospects2004WASHINGTON, D.C.TransportationHandbook on Transport in the Neighborhood
Research Board10226ReportCervero et al, 2004)Sustainable Transport2003Tel-AvivTransport
presents various examples of US TOD’sToday and Tomorrow(Ben-Shaul, 2003).
which were successfully implemented. AccordingIn order to create the aforementioned situation,
to this report, in residential neighborhoods locatedand to extract the highest possible efficiency
near light rail stations there is a 30 percent higherfrom the LRT, there is a need to rationalize the
transit use. In addition, commercial activities inexisting system. Professor Berechman argues
TOD increase transit use on weekends andthat “For the New Red Line, the bus transit
off-peak times. This report presents case studiessystem needs to be rationalized first, with respect
of TOD from Portland, Washington D.C, Santo network layout, level of service, fares
Francisco, New Jersey, Miami, Colorado and(distance and time of day), subsidy (formula),
Southern California. It presents the primarycoordination with other systems, and monitoring
impacts resulting from the implementation ofof performance. Issues related to competition and
TOD. One of the most important benefits oftendering need also be addressed as well as
TOD mentioned in this report is the increase inprivate car policies (tolls, parking…) to ensure
ridership. By increasing density and distance tooptimum output from the Red Line” (personal
transit alone, transit use increase substantially. Incommunication, January 19, 2007). At its current
Orenco TOD, located in Hillsboro, Oregon, 80state, the bus system will not be efficient enough
percent of the residents use public transportationand the transit system as a whole will not reach
(Cervero et al, 2004). This number is much higherits full potential.
than the average in the area. Additional benefits
include revitalization of underused areas, jointBen-Shaul (2003) presents the main issues needed
development opportunities, attraction of newto be addressed to improve the bus system.
investments, higher land values etc.First, he states, for many the walking distance for
In addition to the main benefits mentioned above,bus stops is too long. Second, many commuters
this report presents secondary benefits thathave to take two or three buses to reach their
should not be overlooked. According to the Texesdestination hence commuting time rises.  Third,
Transportation Institute the costs of trafficbus frequency and distribution is not rational, and
congestion reach 68 billion dollars (Cervero et al,there are no accurate timetables (for instance,
2004). TOD communities have demonstrated ariders only know that a bus reaches the station
reduction in vehicles miles traveled (VMT) andevery 30 to 40 minutes). Additional problems not
congestion, presumably as a direct result ofmentioned by Ben-Shaul include the fact that
increase in ridership. Other cost-related secondarythere are very few reserved lanes for buses.
benefits include increase in revenues fromSome bus routes are longer than they need to
property and sales tax, and a decrease in roadbe. Finally, there are several private bus
expenditure and infrastructure. In terms ofcompanies with overlapping routes.
lifestyle and health, TOD communities have shown
a reduction in crime, and increase in publicAs mentioned by Berechman, these issues need
involvement, better access to labor pools, andto be resolved before the light rail is operated.
increase in physical activity.  Finally, in terms onThe different bus companies need to cooperate
environmental benefits TOD promotes reductionwith the LRT and the suburban rail to create a
of sprawl and conservation of urban open spacescoordinated metropolitan transit system that will
(Cervero et al, 2004).be efficient for commuters in terms of time and
The report by Cervero et al. (2004) concludescost, and that will be attractive enough so not
that TOD initiatives not only promote moreonly people from lower socio-economic status will
sustainable lifestyles, but are also successful inuse it. In addition, commuters currently need to
increasing transit use and revitalizing urban areas.pay for each bus ride and rail ride. If one needs to
Although TOD in America has not yet passed thecombine two bus rides, or bus and rail, to reach
test of time, there is no doubt that it provideshis destination, he needs to pay twice. In rational
greater opportunities in terms of transportationsystems there is a destination ticket which is
choice and local amenities. With the increasingpriced according to distance and travel time. A
prices of fuel, it seems this alternative will gainrational, well coordinated bus system will serve as
popularity in the future (Cervero 2004).a platform for TOD.
2.2 - Transit SystemsThe Ministry of Transportation took a step in this
At this point there is no need to highlight thedirection.  It proposed a system of high capacity
importance of proper transit systems as part ofbuses (figure 4.5) that will serve as an extension
sustainable development. However, one shouldto the light rail. In total, the ministry hopes that
understand that different transit services providethe system will be able to serve 1.4 million
answers to different needs and forms, and therepassengers a day (Kadmi, 2007). However, to
are key differences among those services.fully achieve this vision all the service providers
Cervero (1998) emphasizes the role of eachneed to cooperate.  The fact that there are
transit service (bus, rail, metro, taxi etc) in theseveral private bus companies, public rail and light
regional transportation system. This review willrail companies, and dozens of local municipalities
focus mostly on light-rail and its connection tobeing served by all of which, makes the needed
TOD.coordination that much difficult to achieve.
The density of the area is a key factor in4.2.5 - Coordination:
determining which transit system to use. AsThe lack of coordination in transportation
density decreases, so does the efficiency of thediscussed above is one of the obstacles for
transit system. If an area is highly dense andcreating TOD. Another major obstacle is the lack
relatively large, there is higher justification forof coordination and cooperation between the
building rail tracks. If an area is relatively small anddifferent authorities involved in physical and
not dense, there is no justification for building railtransportation planning, and there are many
infrastructure, and in such case the bus is a moreauthorities involved. Inter jurisdictional and inter
convenient solution. Light rail can potentially carryministerial cooperation is important for several
more people, faster, and with less emissions perreasons. First, the transportation system is
passenger than buses, although implementingoperating at the metropolitan level, and serves
buses with reserved right of way have had someseveral local authorities. Second, the growth of
success. In highly urbanized areas a mixture ofthe metropolitan area should be managed, and the
several interdependent transit systems providesfact that each local jurisdiction presents its own
the best solution. Light rail (or metro) providesplans and policies makes it harder to manage. The
service in key locations within the city and itsmetropolitan area should be seen as one unit with
limits, while buses or streetcars provide servicesbasic understanding of population growth and
from the rail stations to the rest of the city.movement. Third, the financial, commercial and
Commuter rail provides solutions at the interurbanresidential developments should be balanced at the
and regional level  ADDIN EN.CITEmetropolitan level in order to manage movement
Leck2001292932Leck, EranApplying the Transitwithin the metropolitan, and to create a
Oriented Development and Transit Communitiescontinuous urban fabric. Fourth, Tel-Aviv
Concepts to the Greater Beer Sheba Region: Anmetropolitan is dense, and local authorities are
Expert Opinion SurveyUrban and Regionalvery close to each other. Hence, they should
PlanningMaster of Science2001HaifaTechnion –cooperate in order to create a balance of major
Israel Institute of Technology(Leck, 2001).institutions, attractions, regional infrastructures,
Light Rail Transit (LRT) is a fast, reliable,etc. Finally, planning approaches should be
comfortable, clean, safe, and often an affordableconsidered for metropolitan Tel-Aviv which has so
mode of transportation. It is frequently used as amany local authorities, and which serves 50
means of connection between CBD, activitypercent of the nation's population (Shahar &
centers, and decentralized corridors. Although inBrin, 2005).
some cities it shares right of way (when it is inThe reason that there is little or no coordination is
the form of streetcars or tramways), in mostdue to the fact that the notion of planning in the
places right of way is separated. One of the mostMetropolitan level is rather new (presented in
attractive features of LRT is that it can be wellRegional Master Plan 31), and planning regulations
integrated within pedestrian environments. Theare directed to the local, regional and national
number of LRT systems in the world is continuallylevels. Therefore, planning authorities are either
increasing due to the relative low cost ofnational or in local authorities and their influence at
construction, and their adaptability to existingthe Metropolitan level is minor. Furthermore, there
streetscapes, the ability to develop themare four government offices that are directly or
incrementally, and the fact that they areindirectly involved in the physical planning, hence
considered more environmentally benign thanmaking the coordination even harder to achieve.
buses. Although the subway systems have someFigure 4.6 presents a diagram of all the authorities
advantages over LRT, many cities prefer LRTinvolve in physical and transportation planning in
because it is a cheaper and faster to constructthe areas surrounding the red line of the proposed
(Cervero, 1998; Ferdman et al., 2005).light rail. At the top of the diagram there is the
2.3 Transit system in Tel-Avivgovernment, which takes the decisions when it
For similar reasons the city of Tel-Aviv decided tocomes to major projects such as the light rail.
construct an LRT system. Construction of theThe Ministry of Transportation is responsible for
first line of this system began in late 2006, and isplanning and coordinating all the transportation
schedule to be complete by 2010. Theplans. The light rail however, is managed by NTA,
construction is being undertaken by a privatewhich is a government company that was
contractor, and is financed according tocreated by the Ministry of Treasury, which
“build-operate-transfer” (B.O.T) model ofdecides on the budget for major transportation
transportation finance. The constructing companyplans. NTA’s responsibilities are very narrow,
will operate the system for 32 years beforeand even though it can present recommendations
handing it to the government. The introduction offor physical planning, it is not part of its duties.
this system raises the opportunity to suggest
planning approaches that will go together with itThe Ministry of Internal affairs writes and
and help support it and maximize its use.  At thepublishes national and regional master plans, which
same time it provides economic leverage for newinclude physical and transportation planning. Finally,
investments along its layout. In addition, the citythe Ministry of Environmental Protection publishes
of Tel-Aviv is relatively dense and has a lower carguidelines for physical and transportation planning
use than other cities in which planning approachesfrom an environmental point of view. All of these
such as TOD were realized. Therefore, suchgovernment offices dictate policies and guidelines
approaches have a higher potential in Tel-Aviv.according to each office’s responsibility. Yet,
This paper will examine the applicability of TODpolicy making and planning intervention does not
concepts to the city of Tel-Aviv.end at this level.  There are 40 local authorities in
For the past two decades transportationthe metropolitan area, each with its own
infrastructure in Israel has been unable to provideguidelines, procedures and planning agencies. The
a solution for the increasing traffic congestion andproposed Red Line of LRT will pass through five
rising need for mobility resulting from populationof these authorities. The fact that different
growth. Congestion is growing daily and themunicipalities, service providers and policy and
demand for new roads is more prominent thandecision makers are not well coordinated
the demand for better transit infrastructures.increases the difficulty to promote specific
Owing to the fact that the existing transportationdevelopment and transportation policies. Professor
systems are not under constant evaluation, thereShiftan (personal communication, February 3,
are no adequate financing or investments to2007) states that the lack of coordination makes
improve them, and more important there are noit difficult to evaluate the quality of the transit
sufficient policies to ensure those systems’system: “… the problem is that there is no
proper expansion.  According to Paaswell andcoordinated plan, and there are many planning
Berechman (2001), when considering the new lightagencies responsible for transportation in the
rail system constructed in Tel-Aviv it is importantmetropolitan area.  In this situation it is hard to
to recognize that “the transit sector mustevaluate if the suggested system is the best
undergo significant reforms prior to thesolution or not..”. In terms of TOD, Avigail
implementation of such major initiatives” (p.Ferdman (personal communication, February 12,
254). Such a project should not stand on its own,2007) adds “that lack of coordination between
and should come together with overall reforms inmunicipalities prevents the introduction of
the transportation system. An isolated projectcomprehensive policies, which could oversee both
provides transit solutions on the micro scale, andthe macro and the micro aspects of TOD”.
does not offer answers on the regional levelThe different aspects influencing physical and
(Paaswell & Berechman 2001).transportation planning presented in this section
Buses are the most used mode of transit iscan directly or indirectly impact the opportunities
Israel. Yet, this is not from choice but merelyfor Transit Oriented Development. Looking at the
because bus transit is the only intra-urban publicdifferent policies, planning guidelines, decision
transportation available. In most cases buses domaking procedures, etc, helps one recognize the
not have reserved lanes. In fact, out of 5,800obstacles and opportunities for such a planning
lane-km in the metropolitan area only 43 lane-kmapproach, and thus helps recognize the ways in
are reserved only for buses (and only duringwhich it can be promoted.
rush-hour).  While there is some railwaySection 5 - Conclusion and Discussion
infrastructure in Israel, it serves only interurbanIncorporation of Transit Oriented Developments
and some suburban trips. According to Shiftan etto the urban fabric of TAMA will not necessarily
al. (2003), those aforementioned transit modesreduce the number of cars in the area, but such
serve 30 percent of the population in Israel; whiledevelopments will slow the overwhelming increase
70 percent use cars (2003 data).in the number of cars that occurs every few
A recent report published by the Israeli Ministry ofyears. Additionally, such developments will provide
Transportation presents the expectedand prefer accessibility over mobility. Planning
investments in transportation infrastructure inthese developments to be integrated with the
Tel-Aviv (Haviv, 2004). Whereas most of the proposed transit system will promote higher
resources are invested in road construction, thetransit usage, and provides more opportunities to
development of mass transit is underway, andthose who are disadvantaged by lack of
includes development of a new light rail andmobility.  Yet, one should note that presenting
extension of the existing interurban railway. Withnew planning approach to TAMA is not simple.
those investments the Ministry of TransportationThe bureaucratic procedure that accompanies the
hopes to improve access to Tel-Aviv’splanning processes from theory to practice is long,
Central Business District and to the maincomplex, and often discouraging. Not to mention
employment and commercial centers; to improvethe multifaceted and hierarchical structure of
access to satellite centers; to recover connectionnational and local governance, an issue which
to the regional road network; to reducemakes coordination and cooperation among those
congestion in cities’ centers and to improveinvolved in planning almost impossible.
the quality of service provided by the publicAccording to all of the interviewees who took
transit (Haviv, 2004).part of this research, in order to incorporate TOD
This thesis will propose how action to create and(or for that matter, any other planning approach)
evaluate TOD can be undertaken in conjunction toin TAMA,   there is a need to create a body or
the new light rail system in Tel-Aviv. Some ofan agency that will coordinate between the
these actions are already being taken and onlydifferent authorities in TAMA, and that will
need to be reinforced, or coordinated. In order tomanage urban and transportation projects in the
present these issues, one needs to presentMetropolitan. As was put by Professor Shiftan
analysis of transportation and planning policies inthere is a need to create a “Metropolitan
Israel, structure and responsibilities of authoritiesPlanning Organization including a Transportation
involve in planning, and approaches and opinions ofMaster Plan Team” (personal communication
informed figures. All of which will present a clearFebruary 3rd 2007). Such organization will
picture of the potentials and obstacles for creatingaccelerate planning procedures, it will be
TOD.responsible for regulating the existing
Section 3 - Methodologytransportation system, and it will coordinate it with
While the nature of this research, and the datathe proposed system.  Furthermore, it will
required for its completion, is mostly qualitative,enforce the quality and nature of new
some quantitative data was used. The qualitativedevelopments, and will ensure that such
data was extracted from experts’ opinionsdevelopments will be balanced in a way that will
and official documents by semi-structuredbetter serve the public at present and for future
interviews and content analysis. The quantitativegenerations. The Government did take initiatives
data was in the form of statistics and facts fromto promote sustainable policies. However, such
secondary sources.policies are often not enforced, and are regarded
3.1 - Qualitative:simply as recommendations. A metropolitan
3.1.1 - Semi-structured interviews:planning organization including a transportation
Semi structured interviews allow the researchermaster plan team could assist in enforcing  such
to guide the interview, but at the same timepolicies and guidelines.
leave enough flexibility for the interviewees andBy presenting the opportunities and obstacles for
their opinions. This method is also appropriateimplementing TOD, one can recognize  the 
when there are several interviews in thesteps needed to be taken to overcome the
research, and the researcher wishes to compareobstacles, hence incorporating transit oriented
the different opinions. In this research sevendevelopments policies in future master plans and
semi-structured interview forms were sent byplanning guidelines. Additional issues that should be
email to key informants. The interviewees wereapproached are the contradicting policies
selected through a strategic sampling procedure. presented by different government documents,
Meaning, they were selected according to theirand the public’s misconceptions of LRT.
expertise, and involvement in the subject. Out ofEncouraging greater public participation in planning
the seven requests for interview, four replied.will help reduce these misconceptions.
The interviewees first received a request to‘Sustainability’ is a rather vague term;
participate in the research, and an explanation onhence it is convenient for policy makers to use it
the nature of the research. Those who replieddue to the fact that it would be difficult to
positively received a set of 8 to 10 questions.measure their success. Therefore, there is a need
Most of the questions were the same in allto take a more goal oriented approach in policy
interviews, whereas two to three questions weredocument. Meaning, to present goals that will be
in each interview were unique to the field ofspecific and measurable such as increase density
expertise of the interviewee.  The first interviewby 20 percent by 2020, or improve transit/car
was with professor Joseph Berechman, formeruse ration from 70/30 to 60/40 by 2014. In such
head of the public policy department in Tel-Avivway sustainability implementation and control will
university, a professor of Community andbe possible, and policies will not be taken light
Regional Planning in the University if Britishheaded as they are taken today.
Columbia, and an expert of transportation planning5.1 - Limitations and future agenda:
and economy, and public policy.The new LRT system constructed in Tel-Aviv
The second interview was with Professor Yorampresents an opportunity to evaluate planning
Shiftan, a professor of urban planning andprocesses in Israel. There are numerous issues
transportation engineering in the Israeli Institute ofand planning approaches that could have been
Technology. The third interview was with ataking into consideration is such analysis. 
former graduate student of Urban Planning in theHowever, the fact that sustainability is generally a
Israeli Institute of Technology, who currentlyvague term leaves some room for subjective
work as a transportation planner, Avigail Ferdman.interpretation. This personal interpretation was
Ms. Ferdman is also an activist in a sustainableseen in the expert’s opinion as well. Each
transport organization. Her master’s thesisinterviewee had a unique view on TOD, on
was on land use and LRT. Final interview was withsustainability and on the planning procedures in
Professor Galit Cohen Blenkstien, a professor ofIsrael.
Geography and Public policy in the HebrewThe analysis of the documents presented in this
University. Professor Cohen Blenkstien publishedresearch, was also somewhat limited in the sense
reports for Metropolitan Mass Transit Systemthat it was quite specific, and only selective issues
Company (NTA).were extracted in the analysis. However, this
The purpose of the semi-structure interviewsmethod is appropriate in qualitative data analysis.
was to gain a better understanding of the generalTaking all the issues into consideration would have
planning procedures, and of the issues standing inbeen time consuming, and rather ambiguous.
the current government agenda. Additionally, theFinally, some would say that an approach of
interviews assist in directing the document“one size fits all” was taken in relation to
analysis, and focus the analysis to specific issues.TOD and Tel-Aviv. However, one needs to
3.1.2 - Qualitative Content Analysisunderstand that with comparison to other planning
Several kinds of documents were analyzed forapproaches TOD received a lot of attention in
the purpose of this research, such as internetNorth America, and through the years a specific
sources, magazines and newspapers. However,guideline was developed to this approach.
the focus was mainly on official governmentUltimately, the objective was to evaluate policies
documents. According to Bryman (2004),and perspective in Israel to sustainability. Doing this
qualitative content analysis requires the severalanalysis from TOD point of view was easier,
steps. First, the researcher needs to present themore structured, and with less ambiguity.
research questions or objectives. Second, heAdditional research is needed, particularly to
needs to select several documents and reviewexamine public perceptions of TOD. At the
them. Third, the researcher needs to createmoment it seems that the public is dissuaded
categories that will direct the analysis. Thefrom such developments, but this may be due to
researcher needs to approach the document withlack of basic understanding. Civic groups have
the knowledge of what he is looking for.already delayed construction of one rail line in the
Otherwise, he might extract irrelevant themes.city of Rishon Le-Zion, and there are several
Document analysis is a useful method whichoppositions to the LRT layout. There is a need to
provides abundant data. Nonetheless, it requiresdiscover the roots of this opposition, and to find
the researcher to be selective and focused.ways to promote sustainable developments such
In this research, official government documentsas TOD to the public.
such as policy papers, master plans, and planningTOD is not an approach that tries to put the new
guidelines were analyzed, in order to understandover the old, but an approach that tries to
planning procedures, bureaucracy, and approachesincorporate the advantages of the old with the
that might influence the prospects for Transitmodern. It will ensure efficient use of the transit
Oriented Developments in Tel-Aviv. The focus ofsystem, and will promote a more sustainable way
the document analysis was on developmentof life.
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